Non Destructive Method Theory - Basic Principles - https://www.tinker.af.mil/Portals/106/Documents/Technical%20Orders/AFD-101516-33B-1-1.pdf AF338-1-1-EC-CP4Sc0-Indice ROCarneval

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING HANDBOOK - Electromagnetic Testing
Manual de Ensaio Não Destrutivo - Ensaio Eletromagnético

  1. Parte 1. Teoria Eletromagnética
    1. Primeiras Observações da Atração Magnética
      1. Benjamin Franklin
    2. Desenvolvimento da Corrente Induzida
      1. Örsted Descobre o Campo Magnético a Partir da Corrente Elétrica
      2. Experiências de Ampere
      3. Lei da Indução Eletromagnética de Faraday
      4. Indução de Circuitos em Movimento
      5. Legado de Faraday
      6. Lenz, Neumann e Helmholtz
      7. Equações de Maxwell
  2. Parte 2. Desenvolvimento Industrial dos Ensaios Eletromagnéticos
    1. Ensaio de Correntes Parasitas de Hugues
    2. Detector Metálico Eletromagnético de Bell
    3. Primeiros Ensaios com Correntes Parasitas e Perdas por Histerese em Lâminas de Aço
    4. Vetores de Steinmetz
    5. Primeiros Desenvolvimentos Industriais de Comparadores da Indução Eletromagnética
    6. Desenvolvimentos Americanos de Ensaio Eletromagnéticos em Produtos de Aço
    7. Desenvolvimentos em Ensaios de Indução Eletromagnética
      1. Friedrich Förster
    8. Proliferação dos Aparelhos de Correntes Parasitas
    9. Ensaio Não Destrutivo com Microondas


1 TEORIA ELETROMAGNÉTICA
This chapter previously appeared as an article by Robert McMaster and in the second edition of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook (R01)(R02). This chapter covers electromagnetic induction developments before 1960 and closes with a brief discussion of microwave testing before 1980.

1.1 Primeiras Observações da Atração Magnética
It is probable that no other form of nondestructive testing has a history of scientific creativity and practical development that compares with electromagnetic induction and eddy current testing.
Electromagnetic testing has the most ancient name of all nondestructive testing methods. Thales of Miletus (sixth century B.C.) first recorded that rubbing amber induced a state in which the amber would attract other light objects. The Greek word for amber is electron. Thales also mentioned the remarkable powers of the lodestone (iron oxide), also known as magnetite from the place where it was found: Magnesia in Thessaly. (R03)
Democritus (about 400 B.C.) provided concepts of an atomic structure of matter. His six principles were listed by John ‘Tyndall and quoted by Robert A. Millikan. ‘The fifth principle states that the “varieties of all things depend upon the varieties of their atoms, in number, size and aggregation.(R03) Many electromagnetic tests are intended to identify the specific atoms in materials under test and the discontinuities that occur in structures when needed atoms are missing or separated from their neighbors.
By A.D. 1200, the use of the magnetic ‘compass was reported in China. At about the same time, Alexander Neckam, an Englishman, also reported the use of the compass in navigation.(RC4) In the year 1600, William Gilbert, physician to England’s Queen Elizabeth I, wrote in his book De Magnete a comprehensive description of his 18 years of experiments and his theory of magnetism. (R)5)

1.1.1 Benjamin Franklin
Robert A. Millikan, in his Early Views of Electricity, states that there were “no electrical theories of any kind” before Benjamin Franklin, who around 1747 observed that “electrical matter consists of particles extremely subtle, since it can permeate common matter, even the densest, with such freedom and ease as not to receive any appreciable resistance. (R03)
Franklin “recognized two kinds of electrification and introduced the terms positive and negative to distinguish them. He arbitrarily called any body positively electrified if it was repelled by a glass rod that had been rubbed with silk and negatively electrified if it was repelled by sealing wax that had been rubbed with cat’s fur. These are today our definitions of positive and negative electrical charges.(R03)

1.2 Desenvolvimento da Corrente Induzida

1.2.1 Örsted Descobre o Campo Magnético a Partir da Corrente Elétrica

1.2.2 Experiências de Ampere

1.2.3 Lei da Indução Eletromagnética de Faraday

1.2.4 Indução de Circuitos em Movimento

1.2.5 Legado de Faraday

1.2.6 Lenz, Neumann e Helmholtz

1.2.7 Equações de Maxwell


2. DESENVOLVIMENTO INDUSTRIAL DOS ENSAIOS ELETROMAGNÉTICOS

2.1 Ensaio de Correntes Parasitas de Hugues

2.2 Detector Metálico Eletromagnético de Bell

2.3 Primeiros Ensaios com Correntes Parasitas e Perdas por Histerese em Lâminas de Aço

2.4 Vetores de Steinmetz

2.5 Primeiros Desenvolvimentos Industriais de Comparadores da Indução Eletromagnética

2.6 Desenvolvimentos Americanos de Ensaio Eletromagnéticos em Produtos de Aço

2.7 Desenvolvimentos em Ensaios de Indução Eletromagnética

2.7.1 Friedrich Förster

2.8 Proliferação dos Aparelhos de Correntes Parasitas

2.9 Ensaio Não Destrutivo com Microondas



Referências

  1. McMaster, R.C. “The Origins of Electromagnetic Testing.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 43, No. 8. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (July 1986): p 946-956.
  2. McMaster, R.C. Section 1, “Introduction to Electromagnetic Testing.” Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 4, Electromagnetic Testing. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1986): p 2-12.
  3. Millikan, R.A. “Early Views of Electricity.” Electrons (+ and-), Protons, Photons, Neutrons, and Cosmic Rays. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press (1935-36).
  4. Holmes, U.T,, Jt. Daily Living in the Twelfth Century. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press (1952): p 49-50.
  5. Gilbert, W. De Magnete (translated by DE Mottelay, 1892). New York, NY: Dover Press (1958).
  6. Maxwell, J.C. A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, third edition (1891). Vol. 2. New, York, NY: Dover Press p 138-262.
  7. McMaster, R.C. and S.A. Wenk. “A Basic Guide for Management's Choice of Non-Destructive Tests.” Symposium on the Role of Non-Destructive Testing in the Economics of Production. Special Technical Publication 112. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (1951). 8.
  8. Saxby, S.M. “Magnetic Testing of Iron.” Engineering. Vol. 5. London, United Kingdom: Office for Advertisements and Publication (1868): p 297. 9.
  9. Hughes, D.E. “Induction-Balance and Experimental Researches Therewith.” Philosophical Magazine. Series 5, Vol. 8. London, United Kingdom: Taylor and Francis, Limited (1879): p 50-57. 10.
  10. Davis, R.S. “Bell’s Use of Induction Balance: Searching for a Bullet in President Garfield.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 46, No. 12. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (November 1988): p 1528, 1530, 1532, 1560
  11. Forster, F. “The First Picture: A Review of the Initial Steps in the Development of Eight Branches of Nondestructive Material Testing.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 41, No. 3 (December 1983): p 1477-1488.
  12. Burrows, C.W. United States Patent 1686 679, Apparatus for Testing Magnetizable Objects (October 1928).
  13. Zuschlag, T. “Magnetic Analysis Inspection in the Steel Industry.” Symposium on Magnetic Testing, 1948 [Detroit, Michigan, June 1948]. Special Technical Publication 85. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (1949): p 113-122.
  14. Black, W.A. “Eddy Current Testing of Steel Tubing, 1929-60.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 43, No. 12. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (November 1985): p 1490, 1492-1493, 1495-1498,
  15. Forster, F. Sections 36-42. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, first edition: Vol. 2. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1959).
  16. Hochschild, R. “Eddy Current Testing by Impedance Analysis.” Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 12, No. 3. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (May-June 1954): p 35-44.
  17. Kraus, J.D. The Big Ear. Powell, OH: 17. Cygnus-Quasar Books (1976).

Bibliografia

Electromagnetic Induction Techniques
  • Albin, J. “Salvaging and Process Control with the Cyclograph.” The Iron Age. Vol. 155. Newton, MA: Cahners Business Information, Division of Reed Elsevier (17 May 1945): p 62-64.
  • Brenner, A. and E. Kellogg. "An Electric Gage for Measuring the Inside Diameter of Tubes.” Journal of Research. Vol. 42, No. 5. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology (May 1949): p 461-464.
  • Brenner, A. and E. Kellogg. “Magnetic Measurement of the Thickness of Composite Copper and Nickel Coatings on Steel.” Journal of Research. Vol. 40, No. 4. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology (April 1948): p 295-299.
  • Carside, J.E. “Metallic Materials Inspection.” Metal Treatment. Vol. 13. London, United Kingdom: Fuel and Metallurgical Journals Limited (Spring 1946): p 3-18,
  • Cavanagh, PE. "A Method for Predicting Failure of Metals.” ASTM Bulletin. No. 143. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (December 1946): p30.
  • Cavanagh, PE. “The Progress of Failure in Metals As Traced by Changes in Magnetic and Electrical Properties.” Proceedings. Vol. 47. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (1947): p 639.
  • Cavanagh, R.L. “Nondestructive Testing of Drill Pipe.” Oil Weekly. Vol. 125. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company (10 March 1947): p 42-44.
  • Cavanagh, R.L. “Nondestructive Testing of Metal Parts.” Steel Processing. Vol. 32, No. 7. Pittsburgh, PA: Steel Publications, for the American Drop Forge Association (uly 1946): p 436-440.
  • “Electronic Comparators.” Automobile Engineer. Vol. 37. London, United Kingdom: IPC Transport Press Limited, for the Institution of Automobile Engineers (July 1947): p 271-272.
  • Ford, L-H. and C.E. Webb. “Nondestructive Testing of Welds.” The Engineer. Vol. 165. London, United Kingdom: Office of “The Engineer” (8 April 1938): p 400-401.
  • Forster, F. and H. Breitfeld. “Nondestructive Test by an Electrical Method.” Aluminum. Vol. 25. Berlin, Germany: Aluminum-Zentrale GmbH (March 1943): p 130.
  • Forster, F. and H. Breitfeld. “Nondestructive Testing of Light Metals Using a Testing Coil.” Light Metals Bulletin. Vol. 7. London, United Kingdom: British Aluminum Company (28 April 1944): p 442-443.
  • Gunn, R. “Eddy-Current Method for Flaw Detection in Nonmagnetic Metals.” Journal of Applied Mechanics. Vol. 8, No. 1. New York, NY: American Society ‘of Mechanical Engineers (March 1941): p A22-A26.
  • Hastings, C.H. “Recording Magnetic Detector Locates Flaws in Ferrous Metals.” Product Engineering. Vol. 18. New York, NY: Morgan-Grampian Publishing (April 1947): p 110-112.
  • Hastings, C.H. “A New Type of Magnetic Flaw Detector.” Proceedings. Vol. 47. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (1947): p 651.
  • Henry, E.B. “The Role of Nondestructive Testing in the Production of Pipe and Tubing.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 47, No. 6. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (June 1989): p 714-715, 718, 720, 722-724.
  • Jellinghaus, W. and F, Stablein. “Nondestructive Testing to Detect Internal Seams in Sheets.” Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, Ausgabe A: Forschungsbericht, Vol. 4. Essen, Germany: Friedrich-Krupp-GmbH, Technische Werksleitung (April 194 p 31-36.
  • Jupe, J.H. “Crack Detector for Production Testing.” Electronics. Vol. 18, No. 10. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill (October 1945): p 114-115.
  • Lichy, C.M. “Determination of Seams in Steel by Magnetic Analysis.” Electronic Methods ofInspection of Metals. Materials Park, OH: ASM International (1947): p 97-106.
  • Mader, H. “Magneto-Inductive Testing.” Metal Industry. Vol. 68. New York, NY: Metal Industry Publishing Company (18 January 1946): p 46-48.
  • Matthaes, K. Stahlpriifung” [Magneto-Inductive Testing of Steel]. Zeitschrift fiir Metalkunde. Vol. 39. Stuttgart, Germany: Dr. Riederer-Verlag, for Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Metallkunde (September 1948): p 257-272.
  • McMaster, R.C. “The History, Present Status, and Future Development of Eddy Current Tests.” Eddy Current Nondestructive Testing. Special Technical Publication 589. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (1981): p 1-32.
  • Nelson, G.A. "The Probolog, for Inspecting Nonmagnetic Tubing.” Metal Progress. Vol. 56. Materials Park, OH: ASM International (July 1949): p 81-85.
  • “Nondestructive Testing.” Automobile Engineering. Vol. 34. Chicago, IL: American Technical Society (May 1944): p 181.
  • Polgreen, G.R. and G.M. Tomlin. “Electrical Nondestructive Testing of Materials.” Electronic Engineering. Vol. 18, No. 218. London, United Kingdom: Morgan-Grampian Publishing (April 1946): p 100-105.
  • Robinson, I.R. “Magnetic and Inductive Nondestructive Testing of Metals.” Metal Treatment and Drop Forgins Vol. 16. London, United Kingdom: Fuel and Metallurgical Journal
  • Schmidt, T.R. “History of the Remote-Field Eddy Current Inspection Technique.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 47, No. 1. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (January 1989): p 14, 17-18, 20-22.
  • Schneider, P. “Measuring the Wall Thickness of Light-Metal Cast Parts with Dr. Forster's ‘Sondenkawimeter’.” Metall. Vol. 3. Frankfurt, Germany IG Metall (October 1949): p 321-324.
  • Segsworth, R.S. “Uses of the DuMont Cyclograph for Testing of Metals.” Electronic Methods of Inspection of Metals. Materials Park, O International (1947): p 54-70.
  • Trost, A. “Testing Non-Ferrous Pipes, Bars and Shapes with Eddy Currents.” Metallwirtschaft, Metallwissenschaft, Metalltechnik. Vol 20. Berlin, Germany: G. Liittke Verlag (1941): p 697-699.
  • Vosskuhler, G.H. “Zerstorungsfreie Prifung der Al-Mg-Zn Legierung Hy 43 auf Magnetinduktivem Wege” [Nondestructive Testing of the Al-Mg-Zn Alloy Hy43 by Magnetoinductive Means}. Metall. Vol. 3. Frankfurt, Germany: IG Metall (August-September 1949): p 247-251, 292-295.
  • Zeluff, V. “Electronic Inspection.” Scientific American. Vol. 174, No. 2. New York, NY: Scientific American Publishing Company (February 1946): p 59-61.
  • Zijlstra, P. “An Apparatus for Detecting Superficial Cracks in Wires.” Philips Technical Review. Vol. 11. Eindhoven, Netherlands: Philips Research Laboratory (July 1949): p 12-15

Rail Testing
  • Clarke, J.G. and C.R. Spitzer. “Electronic Locator for Salvaging Trolley Rails.” Electronics. Vol. 17. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill January 1944): p 129.
  • Davis, RS. “Harcourt C. Drake, Henry W. Keevil, and the Development of Induction-Based Rail Testing.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 48, No. 9. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (September 1990): p 1165-1168, 1171. See also Materials Evaluation, Vol. 48, No. 12 (December 1990): p 1440.
  • Keevil, W.R. “History and Development of Rail Flaw Detector Cars.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 49, No. 1. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (January 1991): p 71-76.
  • “Rail Testing Cars, 1928-49.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 50, No. 2. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (February 1992): p 307-310
  • Wickre, J.M. “ Fishing for Fissures: Sources for the History of Rail Testing Cars, 1927-60.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 43, No. 4. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (March 1985): p 372-379.

Wire Rope
  • Cavanagh, PE. “Some Changes in Physical Properties of Steels and Wire Rope during Fatigue Failure.” Transactions. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (july 1947): p 401-411.
  • Cavanagh, PE. and RS. Segsworth, “Nondestructive Inspection of Mine Hoist Cable.” Transactions. Vol. 38. Materials Park, OH: ASM International (1947): p 517-550.
  • Gee, J. “Testing and Inspection of Wire Ropes.” Mine and Quarry Engineering. Vol. 14. London, United Kingdom: Electrical Press, Limited (December 1948): p 375.
  • Weischedel, H.R. “Electromagnetic Wire Rope Inspection in Germany, 1925-40.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 46, No. 6. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (May 1988): p 734-736


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